2. COOPERATION BETWEEN SPACE AGENCIES

This chapter describes the cooperative activities that ARC has undertaken in conducting research in space life sciences. Interactions between NASA and space agencies of other countries are reviewed in the context of this research.

     In the 1960s and 1970s, the struggle for national superiority was one of the main forces driving the development of space activities. In contrast, international cooperation is now an important factor in many countries' space agendas. In 1958, the United Nations General Assembly created an ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). The committee now includes more than 50 member nations. The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee of COPUOS promotes scientific cooperation in outer space and provides technical assistance to developing nations in space-related matters.

     Cooperation in space research benefits the international community in many ways. It allows scientific ideas, technical expertise, and facilities to be exchanged, and enables costs to be shared. Life scientists from around the world can collaborate effectively to solve problems of mutual interest. In addition to these advantages, there are political benefits to establishing cooperative enterprises.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASA was created in 1958 to provide a formal structure for American civilian space activities dedicated to the peaceful uses and exploration of space. NASA now has several centers located around the country. Activities connected with space life sciences research are conducted primarily at four of these sites (Fig. 2-1). The Life Sciences Division at NASA Headquarters is responsible for overall program guidance and direction, and for integrating the activities of the various NASA centers. ARC in Moffett Field, California, Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas, and Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Cape Canaveral, Florida, are responsible for implementing the life sciences research program. Activities at these centers include development of program and mission objectives, experiment selection, flight support, and data analysis.

     JSC is concerned mainly with space biomedical research on human subjects. Life sciences research using nonhuman experimental subjects is conducted mostly at ARC. KSC carries out some life sciences flight experiments using plant subjects. Marshall Space Flight Center, together with KSC and JSC, also plays an important role in ARC flight experiments by supporting many preflight and postflight activities.

Ames Research Center

Although ARC was founded in 1939 as part of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), NASA's predecessor, space life sciences research did not become part of the ARC agenda until 1960. Early life sciences research at ARC was concerned mainly with questions raised by preparations for the Apollo missions to the moon. Interest was centered on the effects of radiation, isolation, and changes in gravitational loading, and on crew life support requirements during space flight. Studies were also conducted on gastrointestinal function, tissue breakdown, and possible changes in the processes of reproduction, development and aging in the space environment.

Figure 2-1: NASA facilities involved in life sciences research. (Click to enlarge)

     By late 1963, life sciences research was being conducted by four groups at ARC. The Environmental Biology Division focused on physiology, pathology, and radiobiology; the Biotechnology Division on human performance and man-machine interactions; and the Exobiology Division on biosynthesis and cell biology. The fourth research group was the Biosatellite Project Office, which was in charge of developing a series of unmanned biosatellite missions.

     More resources became available for life sciences research beginning in 1963. During that year, a Bioscience Laboratory was built with an attached vivarium for housing animals. It was needed to accommodate the several hundred macaque monkeys that were expected to be maintained at ARC by 1965. These animals were to be used as space flight candidates for the Biosatellite Project. The facility supervisor was a veterinarian and a member of the National Animal Care Panel, established to ensure the humane treatment of experimental animals. The Laboratory had state-of-the-art surgery facilities, a recovery room, isolation wards, stainless steel animal cages, and steam sterilizing equipment.

     A 20 g animal/human centrifuge became operational at ARC in 1964. It could simulate the stresses of spacecraft launch and re-entry. In 1965 a four-story Life Sciences building was completed for use in a wide range of research activities. Three long-duration animal centrifuges were available for hypergravitational studies by 1968.

     Three biosatellite missions were developed by the Biosatellite Projects Office in the 1960s. The first mission, Biosatellite I, was launched in 1966. Because of a hardware malfunction, it was never recovered. Biosatellite II, launched in 1967, was a replicate of Biosatellite I. It carried several biological specimens into orbit and was successfully retrieved. Biosatellite III was launched in 1969, carrying onboard a single monkey. The monkey's untimely death, shortly after the biosatellite landed, focused a good deal of negative public attention on the Biosatellite research program. The controversy generated by this mishap, and the absence of plans or funds for a follow-on project resulted in the dissolution of the Biosatellite Projects Office in the early 1970s. It was replaced in 1977 by the Life Sciences Flight Projects Office (LSFPO).

     NASA began working on a concept for the Space Transportation System (STS) in 1969. In 1973, the Europeans agreed to build the Spacelab, an important element of the STS. In the mid-1970s, ARC conducted two initial simulation studies in conjunction with Marshall Space Flight Center and JSC. The objective of the studies (termed Spacelab Concept Verification Tests) was to verify the compatibility of life sciences flight experiments with the evolving design of the STS/Spacelab. A range of experiment subjects, including rats and rhesus monkeys, was used in the tests. Eventually, a life sciences payload was developed, which included human experiments from JSC. A seven- day flight simulation, termed the Shuttle Mission Development Test (SMD III), was then carried out at JSC to test this payload. By the conclusion of SMD III in mid-1977, the LSFPO had acquired its core staff and contractor support, and by the early 1980s had evolved into the current ARC Space Life Sciences Payloads Office (SLSPO).

     In recent years, more resources have become available at ARC for life sciences research. A Vestibular Research Facility, developed in 1986, can deliver precisely controlled rotational and linear accelerations to animal subjects as large as young-adult macaques. The original Bioscience Laboratory has been expanded into an Animal Care Facility certified by the American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care. An associated Biomedical Research Facility constructed in 1988 integrates animal housing and laboratories.

     At the present time, life sciences activities at ARC are conducted within the Space Research Directorate. The Directorate comprises eight divisions and a staff of several hundred research scientists and engineers. Besides flight studies, the Directorate oversees ground-based research and new technology development.

Interagency Cooperation

NASA collaborates with other federal agencies and many universities in implementing its life sciences research program. Investigators from numerous academic and research institutions participate in the program. NASA is also pursuing opportunities with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) for joint biomedical and behavioral research. For example, a NASA-NIH workshop was held in 1989 to assess the similarities between the aging process and physiological deconditioning that occurs in space, and to discuss joint research in these areas. In 1992, the two agencies signed a memorandum of understanding that will enable them to carry out joint studies on such diverse subjects as neurological disorders, arthritis, and cancer. The Environmental Protection Agency is working with NASA to study the effects of global warming on aquatic systems NASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and Farleigh Dickinson University's National Undersea Research Center are studying crews living in the Aquarius undersea habitat, as an analog to NASA's planned space station. NASA and the National Science Foundation are conducting joint basic scientific and technical research in the Antarctic. The studies are expected to be applicable to developing a lunar base or a journey to Mars. There are also a number of joint projects in the life sciences between NASA and the Department of Defense.

     Through the years, NASA has established a vigorous program of international cooperation to take full advantage of the limited access to space. This program is important in achieving NASA's objectives in the space life sciences. Cooperative activities can be initiated by a foreign agency asking to participate in a NASA program or by NASA suggesting international cooperation in a program. There are four types of agreements between NASA and foreign countries. Executive or intergovernmental agreements signed by officials of each government and processed by the U.S. State Department are established for high-cost programs like Spacelab. Other programs involve agency-level memoranda of understanding signed by the NASA administrator and his foreign counterpart, with State Department concurrence. Letters of agreement signed by the NASA International Affairs Division and its foreign counterpart can also be used for a wide range of programs. Some informal projects may be carried out with simple verbal agreements.

     NASA is currently conducting joint research with several foreign space agencies, including the European Space Agency (ESA) and those of the U.S.S.R./Russia, France, Germany, Canada, and Japan. These activities are briefly described below.

U.S.S.R./Russia

Before its breakup in December 1991, the U.S.S.R. operated what was probably the most active space program in the world. However, its agenda was frequently shrouded in secrecy, probably due to a lack of separation between military and civilian space activities. Since the formation of the Russian Space Agency in 1992, a number of changes have been made in space policy. Space activities have become less prolific because of budgetary restrictions, but at the same time, they have become more visible because of the need for cooperation with other countries.

     Before 1991, the Soviet Academy of Sciences played a lead role in U.S.S.R. civil space activity. The Intercosmos Council for International Cooperation in the Study and Utilization of Space was created by the Academy to develop cooperation with the Socialist satellite countries, and later Western Europe and the U.S. The Council was responsible for the initial international agreements in space life sciences research. It coordinated the activities of the Institute of Biomedical Problems in Moscow, which manages the Cosmos biosatellite program.

     The Institute of Space Research (IKI), a division of the Academy, was also highly involved in international cooperative efforts. The planetary studies laboratory at the Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry frequently collaborated with the IKI. The Glavkosmos agency was created to develop the commercial aspect of Soviet space activity.

     The restructuring of the former U.S.S.R. space program in 1992 has led to a separation of military and civilian activities, with the Defense Ministry being responsible for the former and the Russian Space Agency for the latter. Ten of the former states of the Soviet Union may also jointly fund the civilian program.

     There have been three areas of cooperation in the space life sciences between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. The first was exchanging data from flight experiments relating to the human response to space flight. Soviet data on the effects of long-term space flight on bone loss and cardiovascular deconditioning have been very useful to American researchers, especially because there were no manned U.S. flights during the period from the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test Project to the first Shuttle mission in 1981. Second, joint ground-based simulations of space flight conditions, such as long-term bed rest studies, have been conducted. The third area of cooperation was in basic biological and biomedical research. A joint U.S.-Soviet three-volume publication on Space Biology and Medicine was produced in 1975. A second edition is currently in preparation. Life sciences investigations were performed jointly on the Apollo-Soyuz mission. The U.S. also participated in the Cosmos series of biosatellite missions, to gather important data and to exchange information on problems of space biology.

     An agreement for cooperation in space at the interagency level was first generated in 1962, between NASA and the Soviet Academy of Sciences. In 1971, a Science and Applications Agreement was signed between the U.S. and U.S.S.R., paving the way for joint studies in Space Biology and Medicine. This agreement was reinstated in 1987. In 1974, the Soviets offered to fly U.S. experiments on their Cosmos biosatellite for the first time. Since then, the U.S. has taken part in eight Cosmos biosatellite missions. Seven of these missions are described later in this volume.

     Initial U.S. experiments on Cosmos consisted of "carry-on" packages, which were for the most part functionally independent, requiring no electrical power from the spacecraft. On later missions, U.S. experiments were carried out on rhesus monkeys and rats housed in Soviet animal habitats. On these flights, U.S. battery-powered instruments were integrated with Soviet spacecraft data systems to record biomedical data.

     The overall success of the U.S.-U.S.S.R./Russian collaboration in the space life sciences is due to several factors. Focused science objectives were important. The selection of complementary study areas provided a stronger incentive for cooperation. Instrumentation used in the U.S.-U.S.S.R. missions was carefully reviewed to avoid violating technology transfer regulations. A relatively flexible institutional organization on both sides allowed plans to be implemented in spite of a frequently difficult political environment. And finally, mutual confidence, knowledge, and goals have developed between working groups with continuity of members over a long period of cooperation.

The European Space Agency

The ESA was formed in 1975 by 11 Western European nations. Member countries now number 13: Belgium, United Kingdom, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Norway. Canada has a technical agreement of cooperation with the agency. Headquartered in Paris, ESA has major facilities in The Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. Its principal objective is to achieve cooperation between member countries in developing space research and technology for peaceful purposes. Members contribute to ESA's general budget and mandatory scientific programs according to their gross national products. Each state also contributes voluntarily to optional ESA programs. A large percentage of ESA's budget is spent on financing contracts to European companies for building launchers, satellites, and other space flight hardware.

     NASA has participated in numerous collaborative ventures with ESA. A formal Joint Working Group in the life sciences was established in 1986. The Spacelab was built under the auspices of ESA for the U.S. STS. Personnel have been exchanged between the two agencies. The ESA-built Biorack hardware was jointly used by NASA and ESA on the NASA-sponsored International Microgravity Laboratory missions in 1992 and 1994. ESA is also expected to be a major contributor to the International Space Station program, and will be responsible for Columbus, a module that is to be attached to Space Station. Germany and Italy have proposed using Spacelab-derived hardware to form Columbus.

France

As the primary space power in Western Europe, France, together with Germany, is the driving force behind the ESA. Before 1992, the Soviet Union collaborated in more space activities with France than with any other country. France was the third nation, after the U.S. and the U.S.S.R., to achieve national launcher capability, and now has significant capabilities in space manufacturing, Earth observations and telecommunications satellites.

     The French Centre des Recherches de Medicine Aéronautique (CERMA) has existed, under different names, since the 1920s. Its activities are concerned primarily with aeronautical medicine; it investigates problems of physiology and medicine posed by the airplanes of the French Air Force. Until 1964, CERMA's space-related research was carried out directly with military teams. In 1964, the French government created the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) to study scientific and technical problems of a nonmilitary nature. From then on, CERMA experiments were controlled, progressively more rigorously, by CNES. Today, CERMA is a contractor to CNES like many university laboratories. CNES is responsible for all the space activities in France, and particularly for those concerning physiology and medicine.

     CNES is the largest national space agency in Europe. It provides a framework not only for the French national space program but also for the French commitment to ESA. Although headquartered in Paris, CNES has its principal engineering and technology facility in Toulouse, and several other operating centers are located nationwide, including Evry and Guyanais. It also maintains two balloon-launching sites at Aire-sur-l'Adour and Gap Tallard. CNES is accountable to the French government's Ministry for Research and Industry. In recent years, the agency has established several companies and economic interest groups to commercialize space activities.

     It is through CNES that bilateral space programs developed between France and other countries are managed. NASA has collaborated with France in space science and technology for several years. A Joint Working Group in life sciences was established in 1985. The two agencies conducted joint investigations on the International Microgravity Laboratory missions. A NASA-CNES program to fly 2 rhesus monkeys within a jointly-developed Rhesus Research Facility on a 16-day Space Shuttle mission was under development. It was halted in 1994 due to the absence of a manifested mission.

Germany

Until recently, the Deutsche Forschungs-und Versuchsanstalt für Luft und Raumfahrt (DFVLR), the aeronautics research establishment of West Germany, was the primary national agency involved in space activities. In 1989, the Deutsche Agentur für Raumfahrt-Angelegenheite (DARA), became the central management organization for German space activities. A state secretaries' committee on space chaired by the federal minister for research and technology is responsible for defining goals and commissions for DARA. The agency has the legal status of a private company with limited liability, and is owned and financed by the federal government. A cabinet committee on space chaired by the Chancellor provides programmatic and budgetary guidelines for space policy.

     DARA represents Germany at the international level and is responsible for multilateral and bilateral agreements. It emphasizes manned and microgravity programs. Germany has been involved in the Columbus program and has had extensive manufacturing and manned flight experience with the European-built Spacelab. It was, in fact, the largest contributor to the Spacelab. The Spacelab D1 mission flown in November 1985 included a number of German-sponsored life sciences experiments. Spacelab D1 represented the first time that a foreign government leased an entire shuttle mission from NASA. German scientists flew scientific experiments on the 1991 Spacelab Life Sciences-1 mission, IML-1, and again on the Spacelab Life Sciences-2 mission in 1993. Another German payload was flown on the Spacelab D2 mission in 1993. Coupling of studies carried out on Spacelab D2 and the Spacelab Life Sciences-1 and -2 missions benefited both countries.

Japan

Several national organizations are involved in Japanese space ventures. The Space Activities Commission was created in 1968 to coordinate and administrate space activities. The Science and Technology Agency provides the secretariat to the Commission, and is responsible for planning policy, developing international cooperation and promoting use of space. The Science and Technology Agency also controls the National Space Development Agency (NASDA), which was founded in 1969. NASDA is responsible for practical applications in space. Besides developing satellites and launchers, and launching, tracking and controlling satellites, NASDA promotes scientific experimentation in space. The National Space Laboratory is also linked to the Science and Technology Agency, and undertakes fundamental research in the space sciences. The University of Tokyo's role in space sciences has now been taken over by the Japanese Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. This institute carries out research and development activities on scientific satellites and launchers. In addition, several Japanese companies are constructing operational telecommunications satellites.

     NASA established a Joint Life Sciences Working Group with Japan in 1985. Japan is in the process of building a national manned space program, using its experience in U.S. and international missions. Japanese scientists are involved in the International Microgravity Laboratory series of missions sponsored by NASA. The 1992 Spacelab-J mission was also a joint U.S.-Japan venture. Another important Japanese contribution to the international space effort is the Japanese Experiment Module, a pressurized microgravity facility that will be attached to the planned the International Space Station.

Canada

The Canadian Space Agency was formed in 1989, drawing together the space activities of the Ministry of State for Science and Technology, the Department of Communications, the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, and the National Research Council. The agency manages the civil space program, which includes the development of space science and technology and the astronaut program. Canada's involvement in international space activities arises through its associate membership in the ESA and its long history of close collaboration with NASA.

     Canada developed the Remote Manipulator System for the U.S. Space Shuttle, making it the largest national contributor to the STS outside the United States. Canadian experiments have been flown on several Shuttle missions and some have included Canadian scientists as crew members. Canada plans to provide a Mobile Servicing Station for the International Space Station, which will be critical for assembling, maintaining, and servicing the station. Canada is also expected to participate in materials sciences and life sciences research on the space station.

Interview with Claude Milhaud

Move to next section 3. Flight Experiment Implementation

Additional Reading

Calvin, M. and O.G. Gazenko, eds. Foundations of Space Biology and Medicine. Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1975.

Florini, A. Developing the Final Frontier: International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. United Nations Association of the United States of America, 1985.

Hartman, E.P. Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center 1940-1965, NASA Center History Series, NASA SP-4302, 1970.

NASA. Guide to the Life Sciences Flight Experiments Program, unpublished report, July 1984.

NASA. Space Life Sciences Status Report. Life Sciences Division, NP-120, February 1990.

NASA. U.S.-Soviet Cooperation in Space, A Technical Memorandum. Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, Washington, D.C., July 1985.

Rycroft, M., ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Space. Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Wilson, A., ed. Interavia Space Directory. 1991-1992. Jane's Information Group, Alexandria, Va., 1991.

U.S. Congress. House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. International Space Policy for the 1990s and Beyond. Washington, D.C., GPO, 1988.